Home

El MAEC ha hecho una lista muy útil sobre prácticas y pasantías para estudiantes en Organizaciones Internacionales. Aquí se puede consultar toda la información.

En el seminario sobre inmunidades de los Estados extranjeros y las organizaciones internacionales organizado por la Asesoría Jurídica Internacional del MAEC con la colaboración de la Escuela Diplomática y la AEPDIRI el pasado 26 de abril de 2015, que por cierto me pareció muy fructífero, se discutió brevemente si una futura ley española de inmunidades jurisdiccionales de los Estados y las organizaciones internacionales debía contener una cláusula de reciprocidad. Me gustaría dar mi opinión y saber qué piensan los lectores.

La reciprocidad en derecho internacional opera en muy distintos niveles. Hay teorías del funcionamiento del derecho internacional basadas en el principio de reciprocidad, como se puede comprobar en la propuesta de Andrew Guzman expuesta en su libro How International Law Works, que encuentra una limitación grave cuando, por ejemplo, pensamos en el ámbito de los derechos humanos, donde esa categoría resulta extraña e incompatible con la protección de dichos derechos. En un sentido más específico, sin embargo, la reciprocidad opera sin mayores problemas teóricos en áreas jurídicas concretas y sistemas autocontenidos (self-contained regimes) del Derecho internacional. Un buen ejemplo para sostener esta afirmación lo encontramos en el derecho diplomático. La Convención de Viena sobre Relaciones Diplomáticas de 1961 lo refleja explícitamente cuando en su artículo 47 establece una obligación de no discriminación para el Estado receptor en la aplicación a diferentes Estados de los derechos y las obligaciones establecidos en la Convención y agrega que no habrá discriminación si el Estado receptor aplica restrictivamente una disposición de la Convención “porque con tal criterio haya sido aplicada a su misión en el Estado acreditante” o “que, por costumbre o acuerdo, los Estados se concedan recíprocamente un trato más favorable que el requerido en las disposiciones de la presente Convención”. Esta calificación del principio de no discriminación hubo de incorporarse porque en la gestación de la Convención se hizo evidente que los Estados eran reacios a entrar en un sistema que desconociera todos sus acuerdos y salvaguardias en materia de derecho diplomático. Sin embargo, como verifica Eileen Denza en su comentario a la Convención de Viena (Diplomatic Law, 2da ed. 1998, pág. 404 – hay una tercera edición de 2008, pero no la tengo), el artículo 47 ha ido perdiendo importancia porque los Estados en general utilizan las herramientas que provee la Convención antes que la aplicación restrictiva de sus normas como medida de reciprocidad, que en cualquier caso no puede ser contrarias a las normas de la Convención. En cambio, con base en el mismo artículo 47, se sigue otorgando tratamientos más favorables que los que prevé la Convención por costumbre o acuerdo entre los Estados.

¿Se puede trasladar ese ejemplo al ámbito de las inmunidades jurisdiccionales de los Estados y de sus bienes, así como a otros ámbitos de inmunidades, como los de organizaciones internacionales, fuerzas armadas, et cétera? No creo que se pueda justificar la reciprocidad como regla general en materia de inmunidad de jurisdicción. Quizá pueda estar justificado en relación con las fuerzas armadas visitantes, donde los acuerdos que reconocen inmunidades pueden ser extendidos a ámbitos no alcanzados por sus términos originales o aplicados a fuerzas que no estaban comprendidas en su redacción.

La cuestión, como acabo de decir, resulta menos convincente si se trata como una norma general o aplicada a casos que ya están regidos por la costumbre internacional. Más aún, además de jurídicamente errado, podría resultar contraproducente. Un ejemplo puede ilustrar esta idea. Supongamos que aceptamos la reciprocidad para los casos de inmunidad de Jefes de Estado y de Gobierno y que en España un tribunal procesa a un Jefe de Estado de un país extranjero. Hasta ahora no ha ocurrido, ya que sólo se han emitidos autos de la Audiencia Nacional que afectaban a ex Jefes de Estado (por ejemplo, China) y se han excluido a los Jefes de Estado en ejercicio (por ejemplo, Ruanda). En esos casos, los gobiernos españoles siempre han dicho que se trataba de una decisión judicial y que debían respetar el principio de separación de poderes. Correcto. Ahora bien, desde fuera de España, las decisiones de los jueces nacionales son decisiones del Estado y, si adoptásemos un principio de reciprocidad incorporado en una ley, tendría como consecuencia que se pudiesen aplicar las mismas reglas restrictivas por parte de los Estados que estuviesen afectados. No olvidemos que este es un escenario de juego múltiples, no de partidas únicas. El ejemplo se complica todavía más en ámbitos de derechos humanos, donde la reciprocidad no puede operar por principio.

Dadas estas dificultades y la difícil fundamentación de la reciprocidad en un sistema que busca una regulación normativa uniforme hasta donde el derecho consuetudinario y convencional han podido encontrar coherencia, quizá sea lo más conveniente y adecuado a derecho no prever en una futura ley de inmunidades jurisdiccionales normas de reciprocidad generales y, si se deciden incluir, limitar las normas de reciprocidad a las que permitan aplicar más favorablemente ciertas normas a situaciones o casos concretos, como en el ejemplo de las tropas invitadas que acabo de señalar. Este argumento es, además, coincidente con la firme argumentación a favor de la regla de inmunidad como una regla de derecho y no como una regla de discreción o mera cortesía, tal como ha indicado la Corte Internacional de Justicia en su sentencia de 3 de febrero de 2012 en el asunto de la inmunidad del Estado (Alemania v Italia, Grecia interviniente), con el acuerdo de las partes en la controversia (párrafo 53).

En este enlace http://player.theplatform.com/p/IfSiAC/U4HXoIb2tc3O/select/BCy8DSe1xig4?form=html se puede ver la final a partir de las 2pm hora de Washington DC.

Animo al equipo que representa Chile!!! Cuentan con el apoyo de «aquiescencia»!!!

_MG_8582

El próximo jueves 9 de abril, en la Facultad de Derecho de la UAM (cuarto piso, seminario 4), nuestra colega Jessica Almqvist discutirá con nosotros su artículo «Human Rights Appraisal of the Limits to Judicial Independence for International Criminal Justice», publicado en enero de 2015 en el Leiden Journal of International Law (DOI: 10.1017/S0922156514000557). Este es el abstract:

The UN Security Council’s involvement in the area of international criminal justice raises concerns about judicial independence. Of primary concern in this study is the degree to which this political organ has come to determine and restrict jurisdiction of international criminal tribunals, with the effect of excluding cases involving alleged grave crimes by actors whose presence in situations of which the Council is seized is supported by its permanent members. This control, it will be argued, undermines the basic conditions for a sound administration of justice, as it impedes these tribunals from selecting the cases that may come before them in accordance with respect for human rights and the rule of law. More specifically, restrictions imposed by political organs, leading to unjustified unequal treatment before the law and the courts of perpetrators and victims of grave crime in a given situation, are contrary to principles of equality and non-discrimination. A theory of international judicial independence should therefore extend to a consideration of the legality of such restrictions and acknowledge it as an essential requirement of independence.

Están tod@s invitados a participar, como de costumbre. Escriban a jessica.almqvist (@) uam.es si desean una copia completa del artículo o, si tienen suscripción, pueden descargarlo aquí.

Delft University and Tilburg University are seeking a PhD candidate with a Master Degree in law for the project “Safeguarding data protection in an open data world”. See
http://recruitment2.tudelft.nl/vacatures/index.php?lang=en&id=546419&type=w.

Problemas de acceso

marzo 17, 2015

Parece que en algunos lugares no funciona el blog. Ya he avisado a wordpress. ¿Ustedes pueden acceder al blog sin problemas? ¿En España? ¡Gracias!

El CEPC ha publicado una convocatoria para contratar a un investigador postdoctoral con menos de cinco años de antigüedad en la obtención de su doctorado en ciencia política o derecho público. El contrato es por tres años para trabajar sobre temas relacionados con la ciudadanía, la diversidad y la no discriminación (igualdad, diferencia y no discriminación; concepciones de la ciudadanía; debates en torno a la libertad y la seguridad; modelos de gestión de la diversidad cultural; minorías culturales y religiosas). La remuneración anual es de 52.739,61 euros más Seguridad Social. El plazo de presentación de solicitudes finalizará el día 1 de abril de 2015,  a las 24:00 horas. Aquí está la información completa. ¡Suerte!

Deadline for applications : 26 March 2015
Post title : Law Clerk to Judges of the Court (Associate Legal Officer)
Grade : P-2
Reference : 2015/2
Duty Station : International Court of Justice, The Hague, Netherlands
Organizational Unit : Department of Legal Matters
Indicative minimum net annual remuneration (including post adjustment) :
At single rate: €57,019
At dependency rate: €60,791

Background:

The International Court of Justice wishes to appoint a Law Clerk who will provide research and other legal assistance to one of the judges of the Court. For administrative purposes, Law Clerks are attached to the Department of Legal Matters.

Functions:

Under the supervision of the judge to whom he or she will be specifically assigned, the Law Clerk will provide that judge with legal research and related assistance with regard to cases pending before the Court. The Law Clerk may also be required to provide legal assistance and support to a judge ad hoc participating in a particular case. In co-ordination with his or her judge, the Law Clerk may also from time to time be called upon to perform some specific legal tasks for the Registry.

  • an advanced university degree in law, with a significant academic background in public international law or professional experience in the field. A first-level university degree in combination with qualifying experience may be accepted in lieu of an advanced university degree. Postgraduate studies in public international law would be an asset;
  • two years’ experience in the settlement of international legal disputes with an international organization, government, law firm or other private sector entity would be desirable.

Languages:

French and English are the official and working languages of the Court. Excellent knowledge of and drafting ability in French is required, as well as a good command of English. Knowledge of other official languages of the United Nations would be an asset.

Remuneration:

Depending on professional background, experience and family situation, a competitive compensation and benefits package is offered.

The Court’s salaries are calculated in US dollars but paid in euros. They consist of a basic salary and a post adjustment which reflects the cost of living in the Netherlands and the euro/dollar exchange rate.

In addition, the Court offers an attractive benefits package including 30 days of annual leave, home travel every two years, an education grant for dependent children, a pension plan and medical insurance.

PLEASE NOTE THAT APPLICATIONS RECEIVED AFTER THE DEADLINE WILL NOT BE ACCEPTED

How to apply:

Applicants should complete a United Nations Personal History Form (P.11), or submit a full curriculum vitae, and attach a handwritten cover letter. Applicants are specifically requested to provide, with their application, a copy of their complete official academic record or transcript, detailing the grades/marks received for every university or professional qualification obtained (degree class, grade point average, mark or position in the overall ranking). If the relevant university or authority does not make such information available, that fact should be stated.

The selected candidate may be subject to a security clearance, including verification of the information provided in the personal history form and a criminal record check. All candidates should be in a position to submit an electronic copy of their passport and all diplomas listed on their profile when requested.

All applicants are strongly encouraged to send their application by e-mail, addressed to the Registrar of the Court, clearly indicating the vacancy announcement number.

E-mail: recrutement-recruitment@icj-cij.org

Fax: +31 70 364 99 28

Only applications from candidates under serious consideration will be acknowledged. Applications that are found by the Court to meet the above criteria may be added to a reserve list in case a similar vacancy arises in the future.

The Registrar reserves the right not to appoint any candidate to the post, or to appoint one at a lower level or on the basis of a modified description.

By Jessica Almqvist

 The engagement of domestic courts in the application and interpretation of international law is a recurrent theme in the contemporary legal debate. A growing number of cases reveal how domestic judges are eager to act as guardians of international law. This approach is also present in human rights research fosters an image of the domestic judge as a principal guarantor of access to justice and legal remedies in response to human rights violations. The same theme is gaining relevance as a result of the progressive development of international criminal law. The Rome Statute establishing the International Criminal Court (1998) affirms the existence of a universal duty to investigate and prosecute those responsible for grave crime. While acknowledging that domestic judges may not always be able or willing to meet this duty in practice, the Rome Statute insists on their primary responsibility to bring the perpetrators of grave crime to justice (art. 17).

The trust placed in domestic judges in international law has not fostered a balanced view of their role in international law. Not enough attention has been paid to their possible implications in the commission of human rights abuses and grave crime. Even so, recent empirical research on judicial behaviour reveals that judges are shaped by the political context in which they perform their functions. Specifically, domestic courts that operate in political contexts known to be hostile towards the idea of human rights, such as military dictatorships, tend to conform their decisions with the politics of repression promoted by such political regimes. Even if domestic courts may in some cases provide forums to express dissent against political measures in dictatorial regimes, in others, judges may well sympathize with the politics of these regimes, and participate actively or passively in the enforcement of repressive measures. Indeed, real life examples of judicial heroism in these circumstances are actually quite rare.

Even so, there are hardly any international law cases involving the criminal investigation and prosecution of judges, prosecutors or lawyers for judicial complicity in grave crime. The Justice case adjudicated in Nuremberg in 1947 following the end of the Second World War is unique in that it prosecutes ten jurists, two of them judges, for having participated and contributed to the commission of war crimes and crimes against humanity.

The concept of complicity in serious human rights abuses is recognised in several key treaties: article 3.e of the Genocide Convention (1948), article 3 of the Apartheid Convention, and article 4.1 of the Torture Convention. It is also included in article 7.1 of the ICTY Statute, article 6.1 of the ICTR Statute, and article 25.3 of the Rome Statute. The concept has become popular in contemporary international criminal justice. Several cases attest to a genuine interest in not limiting international criminal investigations and prosecutions to high-ranking military and political leaders, but to consider the involvement of other actors in the commission of grave crime. To illustrate, ICTR has prosecuted members of government, the Church, businesses, the armed forces and the police, journalists, and even a musician. In a similar vein, the ICTY has brought a range of persons to justice, including political leaders, military commanders, the police, and prison guards. However, none of these tribunals have adjudicated important cases involving judges, prosecutors and lawyers. The narrow mandate of the hybrid or mixed criminal tribunals, such as the Extraordinary Chambers in Cambodia and the Special Court of Sierra Leone, requiring the investigation and prosecution of the persons most responsible for the atrocities perpetrated in these countries, has led to the exclusion of officials from medium or lower rank positions. The Rome Statute does not impose any formal restriction ratione personae, which requires the ICC to exclude these cases. The focus of the ICC Office of the Prosecutor on persons who bear the greatest responsibility for grave crime is the result of a prosecutorial strategy that may change in the future.

In this light, I highly recommend you to read the recently published Usted también, doctor? Complicidad de jueces, fiscales y abogados durante la dictadura, edited by Juan Pablo Bohoslavsky. The book provides a rich, thoughtful, and also provocative collection of studies on judicial complicity in grave crime during the Argentinean dictatorship. Its publication could not be timelier, considering the initiation of judicial proceedings against judges, prosecutors and lawyers in Buenos Aires last year (2014). The focus of the book goes well beyond international and national legal analysis. It entails excellent accounts of the sociological, anthropological and political dimensions of judicial participation in grave crime, which should be of interest to international lawyers. At the heart of the book is the need to deepen our understanding of the role of the judges, lawyers and prosecutors during the Argentinean dictatorship. Also under consideration is what the judges have done given the circumstances prevailing at the time? Furthermore, can the lawyers, prosecutors and judges who participated in the commission of these crimes be held legally responsible for their acts and omissions? How was law taught during the time of the Argentinean dictatorship)? Did a judicial reform or vetting take place in the Argentinean democratization process? Is judicial complicity a question of international and Argentinean law?

Postdoctoral Fellowships on the legitimacy of International Courts and Tribunals at PluriCourts, a Centre for the Study of the Legitimate Roles of the Judiciary in the Global Order, a multidisciplinary Centre of Excellence at the Faculty of Law, Department of Public and International Law of University of Oslo. The deadline for applications is 15 April 2015. Information here.